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I. Carbohydrates
Classification
- Monosaccharides: Simplest carbs, cannot be hydrolyzed further. (e.g., Glucose, Fructose, Ribose).
- Oligosaccharides: Yield 2-10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis. Includes Disaccharides (Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose).
- Polysaccharides: Yield large number of monosaccharide units. (e.g., Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen).
- Reducing Sugars: Reduce Fehling's & Tollens' reagent (All monosaccharides, Maltose, Lactose).
- Non-Reducing Sugars: Do not reduce (e.g., Sucrose - due to glycosidic bond involving both anomeric carbons).
Preparation of Glucose
- From Sucrose (Cane Sugar): Boiled with dilute HCl/H2SO4 in alcoholic solution.
C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 (Glucose) + C6H12O6 (Fructose)
- From Starch: Commercial method. Hydrolysis of starch by boiling with dil. H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure.
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O → nC6H12O6 (Glucose)
Mega Reactions of Glucose (V.V.I.)
1. Reaction with HI & Red P
Glucose + HI (heat) → n-Hexane
(Proves straight chain of 6 carbon atoms)
2. Reaction with Hydroxylamine (NH2OH)
Glucose + NH2OH → Glucose Oxime
(Confirms presence of Carbonyl group)
3. Reaction with HCN
Glucose + HCN → Glucose Cyanohydrin
(Confirms Carbonyl group)
4. Oxidation with Mild Agent (Br2 Water)
Glucose + Br2 Water → Gluconic Acid
(Confirms presence of Aldehyde group)
5. Oxidation with Strong Agent (HNO3)
Glucose + HNO3 → Saccharic Acid (Glucaric acid)
(Confirms presence of primary alcoholic group)
6. Acetylation with Acetic Anhydride
Glucose + (CH3CO)2O → Glucose Pentaacetate
(Confirms presence of 5 -OH groups)
7. Osazone Formation (Extra Content)
Glucose + 3 Phenylhydrazine → Glucosazone
(Important for identifying sugars. Fructose also forms same osazone)
8. Ruff Degradation (Extra Content)
Aldohexose → Aldopentose (Step-down reaction)
(Oxidation followed by decarboxylation)
Disaccharides linkages
- Sucrose: α-D-glucose (C1) and β-D-fructose (C2). Invert sugar (Optical rotation changes from D to L on hydrolysis).
- Maltose: α-D-glucose (C1) and α-D-glucose (C4).
- Lactose: β-D-galactose (C1) and β-D-glucose (C4). Present in milk.
Polysaccharides
- Starch: Plants store food. Two components:
- Amylose: Water soluble, unbranched (C1-C4 α-glycosidic).
- Amylopectin: Insoluble, branched (C1-C4 and C1-C6).
- Cellulose: Cell wall of plants. Polymer of β-D-glucose (C1-C4 linkage).
- Glycogen: Animal starch. Similar to amylopectin but more branched.
Cyclic Structures
- Pyranose: 6-membered ring containing oxygen (Glucose).
- Furanose: 5-membered ring containing oxygen (Fructose).
- Anomers: Isomers differing at C1 configuration (α & β forms).
- Mutarotation: Spontaneous change in specific rotation of an optically active compound in solution.
II. Proteins
Amino Acids & Classification
Polymers of α-amino acids. Contain -NH2 and -COOH groups.
- Neutral: Equal NH2 & COOH (e.g., Glycine, Alanine).
- Acidic: More COOH > NH2 (e.g., Aspartic acid).
- Basic: More NH2 > COOH (e.g., Lysine, Arginine).
- Essential: Cannot be synthesized in body, required in diet (e.g., Valine, Leucine).
- Non-Essential: Synthesized in body (e.g., Glycine).
Zwitter Ion & Isoelectric Point
Amino acids in aqueous solution form dipolar ions (Zwitterion). The pH at which it does not migrate in an electric field is the Isoelectric point.
Structure of Proteins
- Primary: Sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds (CONH).
- Secondary: Folding of chain.
- α-Helix: H-bonding between C=O and N-H of different residues.
- β-Pleated sheet: Chains laid side by side.
- Tertiary: Overall 3D folding (Fibrous & Globular shapes). Stabilized by H-bonds, disulfide, van der Waals, electrostatic forces.
- Quaternary: Spatial arrangement of multiple sub-units.
- Denaturation: Loss of biological activity due to change in physical (temp) or chemical (pH) conditions. Secondary/Tertiary structure destroyed, Primary remains intact.
III. Nucleic Acids, Vitamins, Hormones & Enzymes
Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)
| Feature |
DNA |
RNA |
| Sugar |
β-D-2-deoxyribose |
β-D-ribose |
| Bases |
A, G, C, T |
A, G, C, U |
| Structure |
Double stranded helix |
Single stranded |
- Nucleoside: Base + Sugar (at 1' position).
- Nucleotide: Base + Sugar + Phosphoric acid (at 5' position).
- Phosphodiester linkage connects nucleotides.
Vitamins
- Fat Soluble: A, D, E, K (Stored in liver/adipose tissue).
- Water Soluble: B group, C (Must be supplied regularly, excreted in urine). Note: B12 is water soluble but stored in body.
- Deficiencies:
- Vit A: Night blindness.
- Vit B1: Beri-Beri.
- Vit C: Scurvy.
- Vit D: Rickets.
Enzymes
- Biocatalysts, highly specific globular proteins.
- Reduce activation energy of reactions.
- Work via Lock & Key mechanism or Induced Fit model.
- Affected by temp, pH, and inhibitors.
Hormones
- Chemical messengers secreted by ductless (endocrine) glands.
- Steroids: Testosterone, Estrogen, Androgens.
- Protein/Polypeptide: Insulin, Glucagon, Oxytocin.
- Amines: Thyroxine, Adrenaline.
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